Byzantine defences of Corfu

 We hired a car on Saturday to explore the island. The roads on Corfu are in reasonable condition, if narrow in places. The terrain is hilly, so travel times are slow. The biggest challenge is the poor mobile phone coverage and the limited traffic signs. Mrs Google took us on some unwanted diversions!

We started at the Ioannis Kapodistrias Museum, which is in the hills not far from our hotel. He was a 19th-century Greek statesman, politician, and diplomat, and the first governor of Greece after the war of independence. He was born in Corfu, although his family originates from the city of Capodistria (also called Koper) in Slovenia. He served in the Septinsular Republic after the Russians and Ottomans defeated the French on Corfu in 1799.  When the French returned, he entered the Russian diplomatic service, serving throughout Europe. In 1827, the newly formed Greek National Assembly elected him as the first head of state. Greek politics was severely split, and he was assassinated in 1831. It is a small but fascinating museum in one of the family's former homes.

The primary focus of the day was to visit the Byzantine castles, which were built to defend the island.

Outwith Corfu Town, there were three. The best is Kassiopi, a lovely fishing village located at the northeast tip of the island, just over the Corfu Channel from Albania. The first Byzantine castle may have been built in the 6th century AD, but the walls today are likely from a later period. It is a short walk up from the harbour to the entrance gate and walls. Nothing much is left of the interior. The Venetians made little use of it until the 18th century.

Our next stop was going to be Angelokastro on the north west coast, but this was where Google, or to be fair, the signal coverage, sent us on a diversion, so we only saw it from a distance. It was probably built after 1214 by Michael II Komnenos and was named after his father, Angelokastro. 

The final stop was Gardiki, in the south of the island. It was probably built either by Michael I Komnenos or his son Michael II Komnenos, rulers of the Despotate of Epirus in the 13th century, as part of their triangular defence of the island. It is built on a low hill, although overlooked by the nearby village, which seems a bit strange. It would have been fairly useless in the era of gunpowder. The outer walls are in reasonable condition, but nothing of the interior remains.

The Normans captured the island twice. First, in 1081, when Robert Guiscard captured the island to secure a base for his campaign against the Byzantine Empire. Roger II of Sicily returned to take the island in 1147 and held it for two years. Kassiopi was handy, with its small harbour and strategic position opposite Albania. This is the Corfu Channel with Albania in the background.

It wasn't the best castle hunt I have done, but they are worth a look. Anything to do with the Normans in the Balkans is good for me. This book by Georgios Theotokis effectively covers the campaigns. 

Central European Wars 1918–21

 I love obscure wars, and a new Osprey, Central European Wars 1918–21, by Philip Jowett, certainly hits the mark.

The hastily raised armies that emerged from the demise of the Habsburg Empire were soon fighting each other for control of territory and to defend their own borders. All these armies were desperately short of the necessities of war, including uniforms, equipment and weaponry. This book covers the scratch forces assembled by Romania, Hungary, Austria, Serbia, and Czechoslovakia. 

These were often short border wars, largely forgotten today. The Carinithian War started as a Slovene insurgency aimed at bringing the region into the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was to become Serbian-dominated Yugoslavia. Serbian troops got involved in the fighting in April 1919 after an earlier ceasefire ended. As they launched the first of two offensives against the Austrians, the Entente powers intervened, and a plebiscite was held, which determined that the region would remain in Austria.

Romania invaded Hungary and even occupied Budapest, although the war aim was to secure Transylvania.  Hungary was itself engaged in a civil war between left and right-wing forces, with Admiral Horthy's White forces defeating the Communist Government. 

The Polish–Czechoslovak War was fought for just seven days over a region of southeastern Silesia on the border between the newly established states of Poland and Czechoslovakia. The disputed region had a mixed population of Czechs, Poles, Germans, Silesians and Jews, who lived in relative peace before 1919. Poland was preoccupied with a separate conflict with Ukraine, and the region was subsequently incorporated into Czechoslovakia.

The Czechoslovak Republic then addressed the disputed territories around its borders and claimed rights over Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia, which were part of Hungary. There were smaller conflicts in Burgenland, allocated to Austria. Most of these disputes arose from the provisions of the Treaty of Trianon, which largely remain the current boundaries of Hungary.

For wargamers with WW1 armies, these conflicts are relatively easy to replicate on the tabletop, aided by the colour plates in this book. The uniforms and equipment were essentially the same as in WW1, with changed unit names. French equipment was also commonplace. Some can be played as skirmish games, although the Hungarian wars involved large numbers of troops.

Some of my 28mm Austro-Hungarian figures

The Defences of Corfu Town

 I wrote a bit about the Ionian islands, and Corfu in particular, in my book, The Frontier Sea: The Napoleonic Wars in the Adriatic. However, this is the first time I have visited them, the only part of the Adriatic coast I haven't been to before.

The ancient name for Corfu was Corcyra. It was a significant ancient Greek city-state, renowned for its powerful navy and its pivotal role in trade and politics. This is commemorated in the archaeological museum in Corfu Town, which houses a collection of artefacts from the period, including those from the Roman occupation. 

During the Byzantine period, the island was part of a naval theme, although this didn't prevent the Goths from sacking the town. The Normans also used it as a staging post for their invasion of the Empire. The Byzantines built several castles, including one that is now located within the Old Fortress you can see today.

The Venetians had the most significant impact on the island when they took control around 1400. They developed the fortifications you can see today, including the Old Fortress and the New Fortress, built to defend the harbour. You have to visit to understand the strength of these fortifications. The outer walls are strong enough, but they are followed by two more with a moat and ditch, before you even face the citadel.

The fortifications withstood several Ottoman sieges, with the most notable ones occurring in 1537 and 1716. 

This is the view of the town from the top of the old fortress, with the new fortress rising above the port.

The French Republic gained Corfu as part of its capture of Venice. Napoleon wrote in his diary, ‘I think that henceforth the chief maxim of the French Republic should be never to give up Corfu, Zante, etc....With Malta and Corfu we should soon be masters of the Mediterranean.’ Writing to his brother Joseph, then King of Naples, he said, ‘Corfu is so important to me that its loss would deal a fatal blow to my plans. The Adriatic would be closed, and your kingdom would have on its left flank a port where the enemy could assemble to attack you. You must regard it as more valuable than Sicily. Mark my words: in the current situation in Europe the worst misfortune that can happen to me is to lose Corfu.’

It was the Russians with rare Ottoman support that eventually took the fortress. There are two small islands off the town, and they used Vido as a base for the final attack. A bombardment by eight hundred naval guns killed one-third of the six hundred French defenders and destroyed all their artillery. This was followed by the landing of 1,000 Russian troops in the north and 1,000 Ottoman soldiers in the west. Even though the attacks on the main fortress had failed, the French were short of supplies and asked for terms, which included their repatriation to Toulon. The siege is dramatised in the Russian 1953 film, Korabli shturmuyut bastion (Attack from the Sea), which I recommend watching on YouTube.

The Russians lost interest in the Mediterranean, and the islands reverted to French control. The British started an island-hopping campaign in 1810 but stopped short of Corfu. The British assessment of Corfu was that ‘French engineering during the last three years has rendered the fortress of Corfu impregnable to every power in Europe but Great Britain owing to her naval superiority.’ It would take a force of four or five thousand to capture it, which was not available.

The French abandoned Corfu in 1814, and the British took over as a protectorate, rather than a colony. They improved the defences during their fifty-year stay, before handing it over to the Greek Republic in 1864. There are graves of British troops from this period in the CWGC cemetery.

The British were back in WW1, as I covered in the last blog. The Italians and Germans occupied the island in WW2, and Vido Island was used as a concentration camp. 

In summary, while the island has had many different occupiers, few have managed to capture the fortresses of Corfu Town.

Serbian Army in Corfu

 I am in Corfu this week on a family holiday. Leaving my wife to enjoy the sea and sand, I headed for Corfu Town to visit the museum related to the Serbian Army's stay on Corfu in the First World War. 

The Serbian army's (plus many civilians) Great Retreat was a desperate journey through the mountains of Albania and Montenegro during the winter of 1915-1916, following the Central Powers' invasion of Serbia. During the journey, 77,455 soldiers, 47,000 prisoners of war and 160,000 civilians froze, starved to death, died of disease, or were killed by enemy action. Of the 400,000 people who set out, only 120,000 soldiers and 60,000 civilians reached the Adriatic coast, where they were evacuated by Allied ships to the island of Corfu.

Nearly 5,000 Serbian refugees, primarily women and children, were evacuated to Corsica. They were cared for by the Scottish Women's Military Hospital, established by Dr Elsie Inglis, who had been taken prisoner in Serbia. Young boys came to Edinburgh. A British nurse, Flora Sandes, enrolled in the Serbian Army during the retreat and was later wounded in action after reaching the rank of Sergeant Major.

Approximately 152,000 Serbian troops, equipped by the French, played a decisive role in the final Allied offensives, significantly contributing to the breakthrough on the Macedonian (Salonika) front and the liberation of Serbia.

This is all remembered in a small museum in Corfu Town. They have uniforms, equipment, and information boards, supported by knowledgeable volunteers. 

This is an example of a French-equipped Serbian infantryman.

Another Brit not forgotten is Rear-Admiral Troubridge. He commanded the Danube Flotilla and accompanied the Great Retreat. He then assisted in evacuating the army from Albanian ports.

Most of the soldiers were initially treated on the Island of Vido, just off the coast. Many died, but the Allied medical services eventually managed to get organised. There is a mausoleum on the island today.

There are a couple of Serbian shops near the museum, with books and other items. Needless to say, I will not be returning to Scotland empty-handed!

As I usually do on my trips abroad, I also visited the CWGC cemetery. The graves include some of the unluckiest sailors in the Royal Navy. Crew of the destroyers HMS Saumurez and Voltage, which were mined in the Corfu channel in 1946. There is also a nicely renovated grave of Private John Connors, who won a VC in the Crimean War.

Wallace Collection

 Before my work meeting in the City today, I had time for a quick visit to the Wallace Collection in Hertford House, Manchester Square. This is the former townhouse of the Seymour family, Marquesses of Hertford. The collection is named after Sir Richard Wallace, who, along with the Marquesses of Hertford, built the extensive collection in the 18th and 19th centuries. 

There is a vast collection of paintings, including many old masters by Rembrandt and others.

There are many on military themes, of which the Laughing Cavalier is probably the most recognisable.

There are a few with Napoleonic interest.

And plenty of Balkan-related paintings. Countless paintings of Venice by Canalleto and others, plus Ottoman troops of the 19th century. These include a corsair and a bashi bazouk by Vernet.

They also have one of the finest collections of arms and armour I have seen. Not the largest, but it includes many rare items. The Ottoman and Indian displays are fantastic.

The European armour displays are also impressive.

Not to be missed if you are in London.

Apsley House

I am in London today on a work trip. With a spare hour or so, I decided to visit Apsley House, the Duke of Wellington's London pad. It is a magnificent building near Hyde Park Corner, which Wellington bought in 1819. It is crammed full of Wellington's massive art collection, which comprises nearly 1,000 items.

Impressive though the Reubens and Goyas are, the military paintings and memorabilia were the target of my attention.

There are several of the Duke himself, with this being the most recognisable. 

And his primary foe is not forgotten, with a couple of recognisable classics.

The Battle of Waterloo is depicted in several classics, including the Highlanders' squares fighting off the French cuirassiers.

Wellington wasn't big on delegation, but his divisional commanders are represented, including Graham, Padget and Beresford.

As are the allies, including a flattering painting of Tsar Alexander and a less-than-flattering one of Francis.

It's not all paintings. Wellington's dress uniforms, several French eagles, a room full of presents, and a pair of wellies!

Well worth a look if you are in London.