Cynoscephalae 197 BC

This Osprey Campaign book by Mark Van der Enden covers the classic legion v phalanx battle of the ancient world.

The Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BCE) was fought in Thessaly between the Roman Republic, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, and the Macedonian army of King Philip V during the Second Macedonian War. The battle is best known for demonstrating the alleged superiority of the Roman legion over the Macedonian phalanx. Fighting began on rough, hilly terrain that disrupted the tight formation of Philip’s left phalanx, making it less effective. While part of the Macedonian line initially repelled the Romans, a flexible Roman unit exploited gaps in the phalanx's uneven formation and attacked from the flank and rear. This manoeuvre caused the Macedonian army to collapse, leading to a decisive Roman victory. The defeat weakened Macedonian power and marked a major step in Rome’s expansion and dominance in the eastern Mediterranean.

The author begins by explaining how Rome expanded its rule into the Balkans, primarily as a consequence of its campaigns against the Illyrians. The Macedonians had also allied with Carthage during the Punic Wars, and although that didn't amount to much, it gave Rome an excuse to invade. This is followed by a chapter on the commanders and their sub-commanders, although there are few sources on some of those on the Macedonian side.

This is a book about the campaign and battle, but both armies are examined. The Roman republican army at Cynoscephalae has been estimated to have ranged from 26,400 to 32,000 men. This was essentially the same army that fought in the Punic Wars, which is handy for wargamers. They also had Greek allies and elephants. The Macedonian army consisted of four major components: the pike phalanx, peltasts, cavalry, mercenaries, and auxiliaries, totalling around 25,000 men. Again, an Alexander the Great army would work fine for wargame purposes.

The core of the book is the campaign and battle. There were skirmishes in the Aegean and in Illyria before the main event in Thessaly. There is a whole range of interesting actions, not just the final clash. As you would expect from this series, there are excellent maps and colour plates. Unusually for this period, the Roman cavalry had the best of the early actions. A key element of the Roman campaign was to detach Greek allies from Macedon.

Does the Roman victory prove the legion was superior to the phalanx? Not necessarily. Philip’s right wing was caught in the rear, and his left wing was unable to deploy effectively or in time to resist the Roman advance, but the phalanx did operate successfully on what is considered to be rough ground. It also succeeded in maintaining its cohesion, advancing down the slope and pushing its Roman adversaries to the brink of collapse. Philip’s defeat resulted from his decision to launch a full-scale engagement before half of his army was ready and deployed for battle. Defeat in this instance has, therefore, more to do with Philip’s generalship and the inability of his inexperienced left wing to deploy quickly enough rather than intrinsic deficiencies of the phalanx. The flexibility of the legion did play a role in victory, as did Phillip's lack of a reserve. 

This is a really useful book that opens up a series of little-known battles, as well as the classic phalanx v. legion battle. Some of my 28mm Republican Romans. Strength and Honour would work well for this battle, and after my Punic War project, I have the figures to do this.

Sikh arms and armour

I was down in Manchester for the footie yesterday. Passing quickly past that disaster, I popped into the Manchester Art Gallery, which was having a special exhibition on Sikh arms and armour. We were refighting Plassey at the club last Sunday, so I was in India mode.

The collection came from a bequest by Earl Egerton of Tatton and was mostly war trophies gathered during the Raj. It's been in storage, largely because of the association with violent Imperial collecting practices. However, the Art Gallery has rightly decided that these items should be displayed with the proper context explained.

The Sikh Empire was a powerful state in northwestern India that existed from 1799 to 1849. It was founded by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who united various Sikh confederacies and established a centralised government based in Lahore. Under his leadership, the empire expanded to include Punjab, parts of modern-day Pakistan, and areas of Afghanistan and Kashmir. Ranjit Singh modernised the army by incorporating European military techniques and maintained religious tolerance, employing people of different faiths in his administration. After his death in 1839, political instability and internal conflicts weakened the empire, leading to its eventual annexation by the British East India Company in 1849 following the Anglo-Sikh Wars.

It was a modest exhibition, but included some interesting exhibits.

Swords and knives are an important part of Sikh culture even today. They had a huge industry with remarkable craftsmen producing them.

These maces could do serious damage.

An unusual stock on this musket.

The full cavalry kit. My favourite exhibit.

A detailed look at a helmet.

I'm not sure how long the exhibition runs for, but it is well worth a look if you are in Manchester. 

Our take on Plassey, using Lust for Glory rules. An opportunity to dust down my 28mm Mughals.

Seleucid Armies 312–63 BC

 This is the new Osprey MAA by William Horsted, covering a popular wargame army: the Seleucids.

Seleucus I Nicator was the founder of the Seleucid dynasty. He was an officer in Alexander the Great's army, commanding the hypaspistai, an elite infantry unit. Seleucus wasn't one of the original successors, but he became one when he took control of Babylon in 312 BC. At its height, the empire stretched from Asia Minor (modern Turkey) through Syria and Mesopotamia to Persia and parts of India. 

The author begins with an overview of the Seleucid Empire at war, marked by continuous warfare, beginning with the Wars of the Diadochi, in which Seleucus I fought rival successors of Alexander to secure his realm. Throughout the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, the Seleucids engaged in repeated Syrian Wars against the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt over control of Coele-Syria. In the east, they lost territories to the rising Parthian Empire and faced the secession of Bactria. In Asia Minor and Greece, they clashed with local powers and were ultimately defeated by Rome at the Battle of Magnesia (190 BCE), a defeat that severely weakened them. Internal dynastic struggles further destabilised the state, while the harsh policies of Antiochus IV sparked the Maccabean Revolt in Judea. These external defeats and internal conflicts gradually reduced Seleucid power until Rome annexed Syria in 63 BCE.

The core of this book is the armies. One reason this army is popular on the tabletop is the variety of troop types. The core of the army was the Macedonian phalanx, probably recruited from Greek settlers in return for land. They were dressed and equipped like Macedonians, which is helpful for wargamers. The argyraspides were the original infantry guard unit of the Seleucid army. The name was first used by Alexander the Great for his hypaspistai, which Seleucus commanded in India. When Seleucus I established his own army, he likely retained the name for his foot guard, which was equipped as phalangites. These were supported by peltasts. There may have been a unit of 5,000 men wearing ring-mail cuirasses and armed in a Roman manner. This appears to be the first step in the reformation of the Seleucid army from a Hellenistic force built around the phalanx to one modelled on the Roman legions. Other infantry contingents were provided by Galatians, Thracians and Greek mercenaries, with light infantry from Crete (slingers) and other regions.

The Seleucid kingdom encompassed areas renowned for producing both excellent horses and horsemen of all types, from the heaviest kataphraktoi to the lightest horse archers. Between these types, the bulk of the cavalry consisted of medium cavalry, such as from Nisa or regular units called the politikoi. He also created his own elite cavalry, similar to Alexander's companions, called the agema and hetairoi. Irregulars from Galatians, Thracians and Tarentum or other Greek colonies. Horse archers mainly came from the Dahae, a Scythian people.

Finally, we have the exotic units, including elephants from India and scythed chariots. The latter were a disaster at Magnesia and were never used again. I can sympathise as mine have never worked either. Elephants can be pretty hit and miss as well.

This book has everything you need to collect and paint a Seleucid army. Plenty of illustrations and colour plates of every troop type. 

The phalanx.

Vapnartak 2026

 The first big wargames show of the year is Vapnartak at the York racecourse. York is a lovely city, with plenty to see and a few decent bookshops as well. The venue is a short distance from the city centre, which wasn't a problem since I had a car. It was a quick visit as I was driving to Manchester for the Fulham game at Old Trafford in the afternoon. On Saturday, I stopped at Marston Moor, the site of the largest English Civil War battlefield. It is not far from York and has a decent memorial and information board. The site is also little changed from the 17th century.

The venue is bright and airy, with adequate car parking and catering. The local club has resolved the entrance issues, and the substantial queue entered the building quickly. Visitor numbers looked good, although trader numbers were down, with some well-known faces missing. It has always been mainly a trade show, with a small number of games on the top floor. The trader spaces would have benefited from more games, as they used to have on the ground floor.

The games were small but well-thought-out, mostly participation-based, and well-supported. 

Wings of Glory is always a popular participation game and is a good length for a one-day show.

Quartermaster general. A WW1 Risk-type game by the looks of it.

Rebels and Patriots. Fighting over the booze wagon.

The biggest game was Germantown using British Grenadier rules. By the Yarkshire gamer and team.

This busy table was Fornovo using Midgard. Stretching the timeline for these rules, but the game looked good.

Battlefield Northag, and fine modern town

Japanese naval game, Hakodate 1869, with an engaging team of players.

The unmistakable look of blood and sand, with a Ben-Hur-style chariot race.

Gripping Beast came in force, bringing several games to showcase their fine figures and rules.

I bought some bits and pieces and yet another set of Napoleonic rules! Thanks to the York club for all the hard work that goes into running this show.

A Box of Sand

 This is Charles Stephenson's study of the Italo-Ottoman War 1911-12. As he covers all aspects of the conflict, it is the ideal background reading for my current wargame project. 

A quick reminder that the Italo-Ottoman War (1911–1912) was fought when Italy invaded Ottoman-controlled Tripoli (modern Libya) to expand its colonial empire. Italy quickly seized major coastal cities such as Tripoli, Derna and Tobruk but faced strong resistance inland from local fighters and Ottoman officers, including Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk) and Enver Bey. To pressure the Ottomans, Italy also occupied the Dodecanese Islands and pioneered the first military use of aeroplanes for reconnaissance and bombing. The war ended with the Treaty of Ouchy in 1912, under which the Ottoman Empire ceded Libya to Italy, as the Balkan Wars were imminent. However, Arab resistance continued long after the treaty was signed.

This book is a narrative history and a strong analysis of the conflict. The Italian government wanted a quick colonial war to distract the electorate from domestic issues. The key weapon was the navy, which was weak by great power standards but much stronger than the Ottoman Navy. The head of the British Naval Mission found vegetable gardens growing on the ageing warships at Constantinople, a fleet with 'no organisation, doctrine or culture.' The Ottomans also faced uprisings in Yemen and Albania, as well as the newly formed Balkan League planning an attack. 

The Italians had no coherent plan other than to occupy the ports and the coastal strip. They assumed that the Arab and Berber populations would welcome them. Instead, with the help of Ottoman regulars and 107 Ottoman officers who travelled to the province, they faced a significant resistance organisation, which pinned them to the coast. Supply was a problem for the Ottomans, but they developed the technique of living off the enemy.

The war marked several firsts. Most notably, the use of aircraft to bomb the enemy and the deployment of radios. They also used motor vehicles fairly well. It was also fought on several fronts. To put pressure on the Ottomans, the Italians invaded the Dodecanese. This was a successful amphibious operation, but none of the landings were contested. There were also naval actions in the Adriatic, the Dardanelles, Lebanon, and the Red Sea. The actions in the Adriatic almost brought Austro-Hungary into the war, with the Emperor vetoing Conrad's recommendation. The Italians also considered a 100,000-strong invasion of Anatolia, via Smyrna. Shades of the later Greek invasion. 

While the Italians won the war, it was a disaster overall. By 1912, they had to deploy 100,000 men in Libya, seriously depleting their stocks of weapons and ammunition. They also suffered around 10,000 casualties, for very little cost to the Ottoman state. In contrast, the war absorbed 47% of Italian government expenditure. The treaty was ambiguous on several grounds, and started up again during WW1, with German submarines dropping men and supplies to the Senussi tribes. 

The Italian failures included poor intelligence, little desert training, and weak leadership. On the other hand, they handled amphibious operations well and deployed new technology effectively. In summary, it was a strategic blunder of massive proportions.

This is an invaluable study of the war, with all the major actions covered and many new scenarios I hadn't considered. I just need to find the time for some more painting. I have started the Ottomans with the locally raised Muhafiziya (Ottoman uniforms with Arab headdress), what Enver called his Guard Companies. And the HMG company commanded by a German volunteer officer. All from Pendraken in 10mm. The first batch of Arab cavalry is nearly done, and then I will be ready for some tabletop action.

Italian Adriatic Fleet 1915-18

As my current bedtime reading is John Biggins's series on the Austro-Hungarian Navy, and my current wargames project is the Italian-Ottoman War, this book by Enrico Cernuschi is one I have been eagerly awaiting. 

The Adriatic is a relatively narrow stretch of sea, where in 1915 two battleship fleets faced each other. As it turned out, there was no major fleet action at the scale of Lissa in the previous century, but there was plenty of naval action between the smaller ships. The Austro-Hungarian military always believed that Italian adherence to the Central Powers was unlikely, and they were right: Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente in 1915. During the Italian-Ottoman War in 1911, the Chief of the General Staff for the Austro-Hungarian Army, Conrad von Hötzendorf, actually proposed attacking Italy. Mind you, he was in favour of any and every war possible!

Between 1891 and 1911, Italy commissioned eight 12in or 10in pre-dreadnoughts plus seven armoured cruisers. Ironically, Austria believed Italy would knock out its Istrian ports with an amphibious landing, while the Italians believed it was impossible. So, reluctantly, in 1910–12, Austria–Hungary laid down the four Viribus Unitis-class battleships. 

The author starts by setting the scene, explaining the warship development plans of the powers with Mediterranean fleets, and how the naval bases in the Adriatic were used. Then, how the Italian battlefleet was deployed in May 1915. Traditionally known as L’Armata, was formed by:

• I Divisione (battleships Cavour (flagship), Dante Alighieri, Cesare, Leonardo da Vinci)

• II Divisione (battleships Vittorio Emanuele, Regina Elena, Roma, Napoli)

• III Divisione (battleships Benedetto Brin, Regina Margherita, Scout Quarto, Bixio, Marsala)

• IV Divisione (armoured cruisers Pisa, Amalfi, San Giorgio, San Marco)

• V Divisione (armoured cruisers Garibaldi, Ferruccio Ferrucci, Varese)

The force was based between Taranto, Brindisi and Valona, and also included 13 destroyers, 28 torpedo boats and seven submarines. The shallower waters of the Northern Adriatic meant the Italians relied on smaller ships and minelaying. These included the famous MAS boats. The book also covers intelligence operations, a vital role in these pre-satellite days. 

The core of the book covers a wide range of sea actions and shore bombardments in the Adriatic, with maps and some fine colour plates. British and French ships also participated in this campaign. As the Macedonian campaign got underway after Gallipoli, control of the sea routes was vital to supply the armies there. Some of the harbour actions revisited places I described in my book about the Adriatic during the Napoleonic Wars. Cortellazzo was attacked by the Austrians in November and December 1917, although with less success than British frigate captains of that period. The Italian Navy fought 48 actions in the Adriatic, excluding shore bombardments. During these surface actions, the Austrians lost two dreadnoughts, one coastal pre-dreadnought, two destroyers and two armed motor boats. The Italians lost two destroyers. 

The last moments of SMS Szent István, hit by a torpedo of the Italian MAS of Luigi Rizzo

This excellent book has plenty to offer the wargamer and naval history buff, covering the subject for the first time in English. I already have a small order for 1/3000 ships to make a start on the tabletop.

The Emperor's Coloured Coat

This is the second book in John Biggins' historical fiction series about an officer in the Austrian navy before and during WW1. It is billed as a sequel to Sailor of Austria, although it is actually a prequel, covering his service just before the war started in 1914. 

Our hero, Otto Prohaska, is serving on the battleship SMS Erzherzog Albrecht in 1912 when, to escape the drudgery of a peacetime navy, he volunteers for the newly formed flying corps. So new, in fact, that pilots had to pay for their own training at private flying schools. His final flying test ends in an unfortunate collision with the Emperor's shooting party, resulting in his joining the staff of Archduke Ferdinand. Now, the Archduke has a generally good reputation, befitting the heir to the throne, whose life was tragically cut short in Sarajevo. However, Biggins's is less kind and paints a very different picture of him. 

When that spell is finished, he ends up on a Danube monitor. These were low-draft gunships designed to defend the river approach to the empire. Little more than a floating artillery battery, they were unpopular postings for sailors. As a side story, the Royal Navy ended up on the Danube in WW1, supporting the Serbs, commanded by Rear-Admiral Troubridge. I highly recommend Charles Fryer's book, The Royal Navy on the Danube, for this story, which is almost as remarkable as any historical fiction.

Prohaska's run-ins with the captain are very entertaining. However, his amorous adventures with the wife of a Serb factory owner get him involved in a somewhat unlikely engagement with the Serbian Black Hand organisation prior to the Archduke's assassination. He goes on a very entertaining trip across the Balkans before ending up as part of a crew replacement for the Austrian navy's sole ship at the China station. He is in Tsingtau when war breaks out, and the Japanese, with some British units, besiege the German port. Charles Stephenson's book on this is excellent.

Our hero manages to escape on a Chinese junk before the port falls, then ends up in Dutch territory, and embarks on a long and bizarre journey home via Arabia and the Ottoman Empire.

Perhaps not quite as good as the Sailor of Austria, not least because the story is not quite as credible. But this is fiction, and it's a great read. I thought I had the whole series, but thanks to a reader of this blog, I understand there are two more, which I will certainly look out for.

For my planned mini-project on the Adriatic war during WW1, I have ordered a model of the SMS Erzherzog Albrecht. So, Prohaska will sail on my tabletop.