Königgrätz 1866

 This is Angus Konstam's examination of the crucial battle between Prussia and Austria in June 1866. Fought at the town of Könnigrätz (now the Czech city of Hradec Králové) on the River Elbe, it set Prussia on the road to the domination of Germany.

The book is set out in the usual way for an Osprey Campaign study. The introduction argues that Könnigrätz was a truly decisive battle, citing a contemporary comment that 'Thirty dynasties had been swept away.' I was watching the astonishment at a book talk I was giving to a young audience when I put a map of Germany up before this period. They were astonished by the vast number of states that existed in what we today just call Germany. It was this battle that established that process, although there was a little way to go before it was finalised. In military terms, technology played an important role, with the telegraph and railways being key, at least until the battlefield.  

The war was caused by the Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck’s goal of unifying Germany under Prussian leadership, and he successfully brought in allied states. Roon, a soldier as well as a statesman, had spearheaded the reform of the Prussian Army, and, together with the army’s Chief of Staff, General Helmuth von Moltke, the three men sought a military solution to further their ambitions. The Prussian Army's breach-loading needle gun had helped win the Prusso-Danish War in 1864, while the Austrians still relied on the bayonet, a false lesson learned during the last war with the French in Italy. 

Commanding the Austrian forces was von Benedek. Unusually for the Austrians, he was a Protestant who had fought well at Solferino against the French. However, he was a reluctant commander who had lost his earlier drive. The Prussians were commanded by Helmuth, Count von Moltke, who would dominate the army for years to come. He had helped modernise the Turkish army (there is always a Balkan link!). At Königgrätz, he proved himself to be a new style of commander – one perfectly suited for this modern style of warfare.

The Austrian army was similar to that of the Napoleonic period, although even more undermined by nationalism. Unusually, they had abandoned divisions for brigades, of which four made up a division. This placed a heavy burden on the brigade commander without the necessary staff. A corps usually had four brigades plus additional artillery and cavalry. They had a rifled musket with a longer range than the Prussian gun, but it was slower to load. The artillery was armed with rifled guns, in larger numbers and well-trained. The Prussians did use divisions, typically two per corps, plus jagers, artillery, and a cavalry brigade. They used the Dreyse needle gun, with four times the Austrians' rate of fire, and a mix of rifled and smoothbore artillery. To reflect their weaponry, tactics relied on loose formations and firepower.

Austrian troops in the Vienna museum

In the campaign, the Prussians invaded Bohemia with three separate armies, while the Austrians concentrated their forces near Königgrätz. The battle began with Prussia's First Army and the Army of the Elbe engaging the Austrians, with fierce fighting around the Swiepwald Forest. The Austrians were holding their positions until around midday, when the arrival of the Prussian Second Army, attacking the Austrian right flank, turned the tide. Prussia's Dreyse needle gun was the decisive factor. Austria lost around 44,000 men (killed, wounded, captured, or missing), while Prussia lost about 9,000. This is well laid out in the book with the usual excellent maps and colour plates.

I haven't been to this battlefield, but it looks to be in excellent condition, with memorials, little development and a museum. certainly one for my list, and this book will be an excellent companion.  I got interested in this war after reading Geoffrey Wawro's excellent book, The Austro-Prussian War, which also covers the fighting in Italy, which the Austrians won. I have an Austrian army in 15mm that I used to play the Principles of War rules. It is a large battle, so today I would use Bloody Big Battles, which incidentally I am playing tomorrow, albeit for the Franco-Prussian War.

Some of my 15mm Austrians (line, grenzer and jager) being attacked by Italians. I used to have Prussians but sold them years ago with the French.

Shamrock, Crown and Crescent

My bedtime reading has got marginally less disturbing with Gerard Ronan's biography of the 19th-century mercenary, Eugene (Hassan Bey) O'Reilly (1828-1873).

I have been researching quite a few soldiers of fortune for my current book, but Eugene O'Reilly really does deserve the author's description of a 'remarkable life'. There were a number of British officers who served in the Ottoman army during the 19th century. Baker Pasha was an outstanding example, but few had such a varied route and subsequent career as Eugene O'Reilly.

He was born into a middle-class Dublin Catholic family of lawyers, and that appeared to be his career until he dropped out of university by refusing to take the Oath of Supremacy. The Oath required any person taking public or church office to swear allegiance to the monarch as Supreme Governor of the Church. The Act was modified in 1829 to enable Catholics to hold public office, but that was not enough for O'Reilly, who, as a teenager, was involved in radical Irish politics. He was part of the Young Ireland delegation to the new provisional government in Paris that had been formed following the abdication of King Louis Philippe in February 1848. He became famous as the organiser of the ‘Blanchardstown Affair’—a shambles of a paramilitary operation aimed at taking the police barracks at Blanchardstown in Ireland, which had to be abandoned when most of the promised volunteers failed to turn up.

His father's influence got him released from prison, but he had to leave Ireland. He served as a cavalry officer in the Hungarian and Sardinian armies during their wars of independence. In 1851, he returned to England and enlisted in the 10th Hussars, although the British army refused to recognise his Sardinian rank and he was forced to enlist as a private. 

In 1853, O’Reilly went to Turkey armed with a recommendation from the British Home Secretary, Lord Palmerston, a friend of his father's. The Ottomans were offering a one-rank step-up, which, given his Sardinian rank, made him a bimbashi (major). His exploits commanding Bashi-Bazouks against the Russians were widely reported. The source material for this book largely comes from newspaper articles. This led to his being commissioned by the British to raise a similar regiment during the Crimean War.

After the war, he served in several Ottoman civil and military roles, mainly in Syria, as directed by the Ottoman foreign minister and later Grand Vizier, Fuad Pasha. With his career going nowhere, he conspired with two Egyptian princes and foreign investors to raise a Bedouin rebellion in the Hauran desert (spanning the present-day borders of Syria and Jordan). The rebellion did not go well, and he was lucky not to be executed. Either way, his Ottoman career was at an end, and he became a railway consultant. He died of cholera in Fez in 1873, pursuing a railway project in Morocco.

This is a cracking tale about a character long since forgotten, even though he was infamous in his lifetime. Highly recommended.

For some reason that I have forgotten, I sold my 15mm Crimean armies. But here are some slightly later 28mm Ottoman cavalry.

Farewell to Salonika

 Modern Thessaloniki (commonly called Salonika in English) is the second-largest city in Greece and the administrative capital of Greek Macedonia. Today, it is a typical Greek city, but it was not always so. In 1430, the city was captured by the Ottomans, who would hold it for nearly 500 years, establishing it as an important port city (known in Turkish as Selânik) that played a key role in the empire. Probably its most famous son was Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the modern republic of Türkiye, born in the city in 1881.

In the early 16th century, nearly 20,000 Sephardic Jews immigrated to Greece from the Iberian Peninsula following their expulsion from Spain. The city became a magnet for Jews fleeing persecution, and by 1900, they constituted half the city's population. The only city in Europe where the Jews were a majority of the total population.

This is the backdrop to Leon Sciaky's memoir, Farewell to Salonika. It has been in my reading pile for a while, and covers the period around the turn of the century in the run-up to WW1. His family were prosperous Jewish grain merchants, with farms in the countryside. Their farm workers were Bulgarians, they traded with Turks, and the streets included Greeks and just about every nationality in the Balkans and beyond. His memoir vividly describes his upbringing in this thriving multi-cultural city, if somewhat chaotic as well.

The memoir largely covers his childhood, with vivid descriptions of daily life and the community he lived in. While the different peoples retained their language and customs, they generally got on and supported each other. However, by the end of the 19th century, society was coming under pressure from natural disasters like drought and the rise of nationalism. The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (IMRO) was formed in Salonika in 1893 and would develop into one of the fiercest terrorist/liberation organisations in the region. Salonika was the scene of various attacks, including the blowing up of the Ottoman bank and the sinking of the French steamer Guadalquivir. They also dynamited the gas and water mains. Leon describes these events and their impact on the city and its community. He also describes more peaceful developments, such as railways, trams, and street lighting, as well as just everyday events. 

Sadly, most of the old city is long gone. Mostly during the Great Fire in 1917, when Salonika was an Allied base for the Macedonian campaign. The population is almost entirely Greek, after the Jews were murdered during the Holocaust in World War II, and the Turks left after the Balkan Wars and the later population exchanges. The White Tower is probably the best-known remaining feature of the earlier period. The tourist is reminded that the city was founded by the Macedonians, with a massive statue of Alexander the Great on the promenade. The city was named after Thessalonike, his half-sister.  There is also an excellent army museum.

This is a personal and cultural memoir, which only touches on the military events. For a full history of this fascinating city, I would recommend Mark Mazower's Salonika, City of Ghosts.

The White Tower

I am 6'-2", standing in front of the statue to give an idea of how big it is.

Inside the military museum.

Bosniaks and the Austro-Hungarian Empire

 This is Dževada Šuśko's study of how Bosniaks adapted to the Austro-Hungarian Empire's occupation of Bosnia in 1878 and its formal annexation in 1908.

Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878, when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet, which officially remained part of the Ottoman Empire. Three decades later, in 1908, Austria-Hungary provoked the Bosnian crisis by formally annexing the occupied zone, establishing the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina under the joint control of Austria and Hungary.

Bosnia was different to other parts of the Balkans occupied by the Ottoman Empire in that it had a large Muslim population, known as Bosniaks, who formed an effective border community against Austrian expansion in the Balkans for centuries. As they looked to the Ottoman caliphate, they were not driven by the nationalism that gripped many other Balkan states in the 19th century. This study examines how the shift in power from Ottoman to Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878 affected the Bosnian people, who suddenly found themselves under European rather than Islamic authority, and how they navigated this transition in terms of faith and loyalty. Of course, not everyone did, and there were waves of emigration.

The Austrians had historically made a mess of their Balkan invasions, and the Catholic state had a mixed record in dealing with parts of the empire that professed a different faith. However, Bosnia was given the status of a separate entity within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Despite initial mistrust, a rapport of sorts with the Austria-Hungary occupiers was reached to the extent that Bosniaks even began enlisting in the Empire’s military following their religious demands of halal food, Friday prayers (Jumu‘ah), Ramadan, etc., being accommodated. This led to a complex interaction, with a degree of loyalty engendered toward the Austrian state, as well as toward the Islamic faith and its cultural heritage.

This book developed out of a PhD thesis, so there is a lengthy discussion of the theoretical framework and sources that the general reader may want to skip. There is a chapter that covers who the Bosniaks were and their development since the Ottoman invasion. There are lots of myths about this, and the chapter outlines the key developments. With the conquest of Bosnia by the Ottoman Empire, adherents of the Bosnian Church and a part of the Catholic and Orthodox population converted to Islam. Bosniaks are not left behind Turks, as some persist in arguing. The impact of developments in the surrounding states is equally important, as Bosnia did not exist in isolation, despite the mountainous terrain.

The Bosniaks were torn between showing loyalty to the Ottoman Empire, to an autonomous state of Bosnia, or to Austria-Hungary. Their main fear was losing their religious identity. The meat of this study is how the Bosniaks accommodated to the new rule and adopted Central European standards. The first conscription law was promulgated in 1881, and the author outlines how the Austrians imposed very different conditions of service on Bosniaks. The Ottoman state did not object to conscription, and Islamic scholars approved of the conditions of service. This took the steam out of possible revolts. During WW1, Bosnian Serbs took sides with Serbia, whereas Bosniaks and Croats sided with the Austro-Hungarian military. Austria, being allied with the Ottoman Empire, obviously helped. The Shaykh al- Islam issued a fatwa to proclaim a jihad, arguing that Russia had proven itself to be the enemy of Islam and Muslims. Its politics were supported by England and France and aimed at destroying the Ottoman Empire as well as the Muslim populations in the Balkans. 

Bosniak soldiers not only protected the borders of their home country, but they were also deployed to the Russian and Italian fronts. Some Austrian officers argued that the Bosniaks were a military elite within the Austro-Hungarian army. They were praised because they were the youngest, described as the most courageous, cooperative, cordial, and persistent of men, extremely loyal to their task and work. 

This might appear to be a rather specialist study, but there is plenty of material of wider interest that explains the role of Bosniaks in later conflicts, including WW2 and the Balkan wars of the 1990s. As the author concludes, "History bears witness that as long as their religious identity and practice, as well as the territorial integrity of their home country Bosnia and Herzegovina, and mother tongue has not been endangered, Bosniaks have adapted to new political, social and educational systems." It is also available as a free ebook, so no risk in giving it a go.

I do have some WW2 Bosniaks as Warlord do head conversions, but not for WW1. I can't see a range, so it looks like another conversion.

I do have Austrians of the period.

We shouldn't forget that the 'spark' for WW1 happened in Sarajevo. This is in the museum at the site of the assassination. Lovely city to visit.

Sikh arms and armour

I was down in Manchester for the footie yesterday. Passing quickly past that disaster, I popped into the Manchester Art Gallery, which was having a special exhibition on Sikh arms and armour. We were refighting Plassey at the club last Sunday, so I was in India mode.

The collection came from a bequest by Earl Egerton of Tatton and was mostly war trophies gathered during the Raj. It's been in storage, largely because of the association with violent Imperial collecting practices. However, the Art Gallery has rightly decided that these items should be displayed with the proper context explained.

The Sikh Empire was a powerful state in northwestern India that existed from 1799 to 1849. It was founded by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who united various Sikh confederacies and established a centralised government based in Lahore. Under his leadership, the empire expanded to include Punjab, parts of modern-day Pakistan, and areas of Afghanistan and Kashmir. Ranjit Singh modernised the army by incorporating European military techniques and maintained religious tolerance, employing people of different faiths in his administration. After his death in 1839, political instability and internal conflicts weakened the empire, leading to its eventual annexation by the British East India Company in 1849 following the Anglo-Sikh Wars.

It was a modest exhibition, but included some interesting exhibits.

Swords and knives are an important part of Sikh culture even today. They had a huge industry with remarkable craftsmen producing them.

These maces could do serious damage.

An unusual stock on this musket.

The full cavalry kit. My favourite exhibit.

A detailed look at a helmet.

I'm not sure how long the exhibition runs for, but it is well worth a look if you are in Manchester. 

Our take on Plassey, using Lust for Glory rules. An opportunity to dust down my 28mm Mughals.

The Serbian Army 1876-1878

This is a new edition of Dusan Babac's book on the Serbian Army during the wars for independence. It's unclear why a second edition was necessary, as the preface and content look the same, except for a lovely new cover and better quality paper. So, if you have the 2015 edition, you won't need this one.

Serbia became an autonomous part of the Ottoman Empire after two revolts in 1815. It was de facto independent from the 1830s, and the last Ottoman troops left in the 1860s. After which, Serbia adopted a new constitution. Formal international recognition came with the Congress of Berlin in 1878.  This means the book's premise is a little misleading, as these wars were really about taking advantage of the uprising in Bosnia to expand the Serbian state, with the support of Montenegro. The nationalist tone of the first chapter might be a bit grating to readers outside Serbia, but this is the Balkans!

Putting the nationalist politics aside, this is a book about the Serbian army during these wars. The first war went badly. Serbia was poorly prepared militarily, and the Ottomans inflicted several defeats on the Serbs, most notably at Aleksinac. They were saved by Russian and Great Power intervention. The second war was part of the wider Russo-Turkish War of 1877, in which the Russians and Romanians played the central role.

The book describes the main battles of both wars, but its real value comes from the chapters on weaponry, uniforms, and standards. There is a profusion of period photos and colour plates. In the style of the time, they are mostly posed portraits, but the magazine artwork helps bring the action to life. I particularly enjoyed rereading the chapter on volunteers in the first war, as I gave a talk on this in Belgrade many years ago. Over 500 Russian officers volunteered to fight, and they were joined by Bulgarians, Hungarians and others from further afield. Brigadier-General MacIver was the most famous British volunteer, a remarkable soldier of fortune who fought in many conflicts. Babec says under 18 flags, although his 1888 biographer, W. D. L'Estrange, says 14. Dorothy Anderson wrote an excellent book, The Balkan Volunteers, in 1968. Surprisingly, it isn't in the bibliography, as copies can be found at attractive prices. I also have Philip Salusbury's memoir, which is less valuable. He was a yeomanry officer who made his way to Serbia at the outbreak of war and was given a small cavalry unit to train. However, his description of the actions he was present at spent more time describing the members of the Royal family he met and the food he ate than the action!

This book has everything a wargamer needs. Outpost Games was considering a small range of 28 mm figures for the Serbian army. However, the owner has sadly passed away, and I'm not sure how far he got. Their Bulgarian legion figures are superb. Conversions from the Balkan Wars ranges would not be too challenging, and French or even ACW ranges have figures that would work, particularly in smaller scales. The Ottomans can come straight from the 1877 ranges.

Outpost Bulgarian Legion

Romania's Russia Scare

 Before my recent trip to Romania, I had brushed up on my Romanian history in anticipation of the museums and battlefields I planned to visit. One aspect of Romania's history I wasn't familiar with was its late 19th-century Russia scare. If this sounds familiar to British readers, it should. We had a similar scare with Russia and the French during the same period, and started building fortifications in response. The Palmerston Forts on the south coast are the best example, including the artillery museum at Fort Nelson.

Romania had been part of the Triple Alliance since 1883, which put it at risk of Russian invasion. The border area, with modern-day Ukraine, was probably indefensible, so in 1887, they started to build a line of forts along the Siret River, known as the Focşani-Namoloasa-Galati (FNG) fortified region. Essentially, a shorter defence line between the Carpathian Mountains and the Danube River. They also built a series of forts around Bucharest to defend the capital. There isn't a great deal of the line to see today, other than the very fine WW1 memorial at Mărășești. 

However, the National Military Museum has a series of Osprey-style booklets, including one on the FNG and another on the Bucharest forts. Only three of the series were on sale, at the bargain price of £10 for all three. I would have bought the whole series at that price.

While the main text is in Romanian, there is a summary in English, and the many illustrations, as well as the colour plates, have English captions. 

The fortifications cost the newly independent state a fortune and were controversial at the time. The designer was German Major Schumann, and the FNG included one fort and 15 groups of armoured batteries. There were more batteries at Galati defending the Danube port. An unusual feature was portable 37mm quick-firing guns, supplemented by 53mm guns and 120mm howitzers. 

53mm Grusson Cannon

There were 18 forts built around Bucharest, with another 18 batteries. This resulted in an 8km gap between positions. The forts had 210mm and 150mm guns in cupolas and disappearing turrets. There were smaller guns and machine guns as well. A railway was built to supply the ring of forts, with a garrison of 33,000 troops. Some of the forts exist today and are still used by the military.

Ironically, the FNG defences had to be reversed during WW1, when Romania left the Triple Alliance and faced an invasion from Austro-Hungary to the south. 

The Honved War

 This new book by Nigel Smith covers the armies of the Hungarian War of Independence 1848-49. I was pulled into this conflict through Steve Barber's range of 28mm figures and Ralf Weaver's book on the Hungarian armies. This book is a little more detailed and covers the Austrians and Russians as well.

For those unfamiliar with this obscure war, The Hungarian War of Independence of 1848–1849 aimed to achieve Hungarian autonomy within the Habsburg Monarchy. Inspired by the broader European Revolutions of 1848, the movement sought constitutional reform, civil liberties, and national independence. It started on 15 March 1848 with an uprising in Budapest, which led to the formation of a Hungarian government under Lajos Kossuth and the acceptance of the "April Laws" by Emperor Ferdinand I, granting Hungary limited self-rule. When Austria attempted to revoke Hungarian autonomy, war broke out in September 1848. Hungary initially succeeded under leaders like Artúr Görgei but faced setbacks when Austria allied with Russia, whose intervention in 1849 turned the tide. The combined Austrian-Russian forces overwhelmed the Hungarian army. The revolution ended in August 1849 with the surrender at Világos.

The author gives the historical background, although other books in this Helion series go into detail. The focus here is on the organisation of the three main armies, their commanders and uniforms. There are detailed orbats, plenty of illustrations and some fine colour plates. The Hungarian Army has a range of volunteer units, which add a bit more colour to what is already a colourful array. The commanders included an Englishman, Richard Debaufre Guyon, born in Bath in 1803. He joined the Habsburg army, fought for the Hungarians and ended up as a Pasha in the Ottoman army during the Crimean War. 

The Hungarians started the war short of modern firearms, in a period when the percussion musket became the standard, with some regiments armed with pikes and farm implements. However, realistically, the effective range of a musket was still around 100 yards. The Austrians had moved to column attacks with the bayonet when the terrain was suitable. Jagers did skirmish, but they were also used as storm troops. The Hungarians had plenty of Hussar regiments for screening, etc. However, the Austrians had the heavy battlefield cavalry.

This is a very useful addition to the library on this conflict. It also inspires me to get my armies back on the tabletop.

The English Amongst the Persians

 My Persian 19th-century rabbit hole was sparked again when I picked this book up in a secondhand bookshop in York. Written by Sir Denis Wright, a former UK ambassador to Iran, it covers relations between Britain and Iran from the 18th-century Qajar dynasty to the 1921 coup. He apologises for the title, as the diplomats were not all 'English', although that is what they were called. Equally, the British used Persia when Iran would be more commonly used locally.

At least until the 20th century, the underlying story was the rivalry between an expanding Russian Empire and British colonial interests in India. Iran was being steadily pushed out of the Caucasus by Russia in a series of wars and looked to Britain to help modernise its army. However, British interests did not always coincide, and Iran was dumped when British-Russian relations were positive. This happened at the end of the Napoleonic Wars and again in the run-up to the First World War.

Much of the book is devoted to diplomacy and the stories of the challenges faced by various diplomats. The more interesting chapters cover military aid, which mostly came from the Indian army. For example, in 1812, 25 British officers and 50 other ranks, and sepoy escorts. The aid included muskets and artillery. They also fought against the Russians at the Battle of Sultanabad in 1812, where one British sergeant was killed. The British troops withdrew from the conflict when the news of peace with the Russians came through in 1813.

British interests have always been the primary consideration in relations with Iran. When they clashed in 1856, the British fought the short Anglo-Persian War, enabling them to effectively occupy parts of the Persian Gulf. This would become even more important when oil was discovered, and Indian troops (including the Bengal Lancers) would supplement local tribal levies, recruited with little consultation with the Iranian government. The Persian coast was a valuable base for actions against the pirates based in the Gulf. Similar actions were taken to curtail the slave trade and limit Iranian incursions into Afghanistan. By 1921, Britain had 21 consulates in Iran, which played their part in the Great Game with Russia throughout the second half of the 19th century. 

Although Iran was neutral during the First World War, her sympathies were with the Germans fighting Russia. Britain fought to defend its oil terminals at Abadan, which were vital to the Royal Navy. 3,600, mostly Indian troops, died in Iran. The British arrested the German consuls, although one of them, Herr Wassmuss, escaped and raised local tribesmen against the British. The 'German Lawrence' looks like an interesting story if I can avoid another rabbit hole!

For the military history reader, there probably isn't enough in this book to justify the effort. Prices vary considerably, but if you are interested in the region and there is obvious current affairs relevance, then it might be worth a library request.

My 15mm Qajar Dynasty infantry

Iran at War

 This is Maziar Behrooz's book on Qajar Iran and its conflicts with Imperial Russia in the early 19th century. If, like me, the use of Iran confuses, it's because that is how the nation referred to itself, even though the country's formal name didn't change until the 20th century. 

The author starts with some background to Iran during this period and how the Qajar dynasty came to power. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar was a eunuch monarch from 1789, being castrated as a six-year-old upon his capture by Adel Shah Afshar, and hence was childless. While eunuchs have achieved powerful positions, he is possibly unique in terms of royal power. The Ottomans infamously killed off princes who might contend for the throne. The Iranians blinded or cut off ears, noses and other parts to eliminate them from royal contention. For most of this period, Fath Ali Shah ruled Iran. He had a harem of 158 wives and concubines who delivered 48 sons and 49 daughters. Clearly, making up for lost time!

The early years focused on consolidating power, but the first clashes with the expanding Russian Empire came in 1781. The Russians under Potemkin had already reached the Caucasus, and Suverov led a full invasion in 1779. 

At the start of the conflicts with Russia, the Qajar military was a traditional tribal force, at least 60,000 strong, mostly cavalry. From 1805, European-modelled infantry were trained, significantly contributing to the army, although there was a shortage of good-quality muskets. For more information on the Iranian military, David Brown's excellent booklet is available on Wargames Vault. 

The meat of the book is a detailed look at the Russo-Iranian Wars. The first was fought between 1801 and 1813, and while on the fringes of the Napoleonic Wars, all the leading players engaged with the Iranians. The problem for Iran was that alliances with the French and then the British always played second fiddle to European alliances. Behrooz challenges many of the traditional explanations for the conflicts, clearly placing the responsibility on Russian imperialism. This isn't a military history as such; greater emphasis is given to the diplomatic events. However, the main actions are all covered with an analysis of the reasons for the outcome. The Iranians typically started the war well, but the Russians were able to reinforce their armies, and their greater resources triumphed. The Iranian troops generally fought well, but generalship was poor.

War broke out again in 1826, provoked by the Russian governor in 1825. Again, the Iranians started well, but the Russians fought back, aided by some bizarre command decisions. For example, the Iranian commander Abbas Mirza appointed three of his young sons to command segments of the army and then withdrew them when threatened.  

In the final chapter, the author seeks to put the record straight on the common distortions of Qajar history, using seven points of analysis. There is also a detailed chronology and biographies of the leading players. This is a very readable account of the period and valuable for my current wargame project. I now have the core of the infantry and artillery thanks to purchasing and rebasing some of Mark Bevis' collection. The cavalry and camel guns are coming from Irregular Miniatures. In the meantime, I got them onto the table by using some similar Ottoman types. The Russians narrowly pulled off a victory in the first game using Blucher rules.

The Caucasus

 This is Thomas De Waal's introduction to the Caucasus region, specifically the South Caucasus, or what the Russians called the Transcaucasus. I picked this up in an Oxfam bookshop during my football travels, thinking I ought to know more about the background of current events in Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. These three modern countries cover the region south of the mountains.

The author starts by describing the region, dominated by the Greater Caucasus mountain chain and the highest in Europe. There is an iconic WW2 photo of a Gebirgsjager on the highest point, Mount Elbrus. The region also has the greatest density of distinct languages anywhere on Earth. Significantly for me, it is the home of wine, reflecting that not all the area is mountainous.

While this book focuses on 20th-century history, the earlier periods are not ignored. This includes the various religions that influenced the region following invasions. The Ottoman and Persian Empires dominated the area until the Russians arrived, although the nations all had periods of independence. Peter the Great started the imperialist Russian period. Still, Catherine the Great, with her arch-imperialist Potemkin, expanded the Empire to the shores of the Black Sea and the Georgian capital of Tiflis (Tbilisi today). 

In my last post, I covered the later Russian conflicts with Persia (or, as they would have said, Iran). This has kicked off a new wargame project and further reading, of which more will be discussed in later posts. This was the equivalent of the Wild West for Russian officers who called it South Siberia.

The Soviet period was one of many contradictions, from utopian class liberation to Stalinist authoritarianism. The author points to the ways the Soviets behaved that were different from those of the Tsarist period. Stalin was, of course, a Georgian, although he only took a slight interest in the region.

The background of modern conflicts is explained in detail. The breakaway parts of Georgia (South Ossetia and Abkhazia) and the wars fought between Azerbaijan and Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh. There are plenty of maps and some illustrations. Overall, this book is an excellent introduction and a warm-up for more detailed reading on the Napoleonic period in particular.

While not specifically for these conflicts, I have been building some Potemkin period units in 28mm, with their distinctive headgear. This is from the North Star range. I have 36 infantry, enough for two Black Powder or three Rebels & Patriots units. Just as well as, they now appear to be out of stock. I can use my irregular Cossacks for the early period, but I picked up a couple of packs of Foundry Don Cossacks for the Napoleonic Wars.

Diplomacy and Murder in Tehran

 I have hankered after doing the Russo-Persian Wars for a while. There were many, but the early 19th century ones offered a new opponent for my Napoleonic Russians and the Ottomans were involved as well. I was in a second-hand bookshop in York when I spotted this book by Lawrence Kelly, which didn't seem like much of a punt at £3.99. It covers the life of the writer and diplomat Alexander Griboyedov, who played a crucial role in relations with Russia in this period. He was murdered by a mob in Tehran in 1829.

The background was the  Russo-Persian War of 1804-1813, fought over territorial disputes in the South Caucasus region. The Russian Empire, expanding southwards, sought to consolidate its control over the territories in the Caucasus, including Georgia, which had been formally annexed by Russia in 1801. This move antagonised Persia, which had historical claims over the region. The war concluded with the Treaty of Gulistan, signed on October 24, 1813. The terms of the treaty heavily favoured Russia, which gained control over vast territories in the South Caucasus, including modern-day Dagestan, eastern Georgia, most of Azerbaijan, and parts of Armenia. The modern links are obvious!

Griboyedov's linguistic skills and deep understanding of Eastern cultures made him a valuable asset to the Russian Empire's diplomatic efforts in the area. He was on the staff of the Russian governor, General Yermolov, who was the main driver of Russian imperialism in the region. The Persians had a regiment of Russian deserters, and one of Griboyedov's first missions to Tehran was to negotiate their return. He also encouraged the Persians in their conflict with the Ottomans, which ended in 1823.

Griboyedov's career nearly came to a sticky end when he dabbled on the fringes of the Decembrist Revolt that aimed to overthrow the new Tsar Alexander. Several of his friends were executed, and others were exiled to Siberia. Griboyedov's most significant literary work is 'Woe from Wit', a play that satirises the Russian aristocracy and bureaucratic society. It was banned, but copies were widely circulated.

War broke out again in 1826, and Griboyedov played an active role in the conflict as an aide to the new Russian commander, General Paskievich. Initial Persian success was countered by the Russians, who captured Tabriz, forcing the Persians to sue for peace. Griboyedov negotiated the Treaty of Turkmenchay on February 21, 1828, on terms highly favourable to Russia and returned to Moscow as a hero. Russia acquired additional territories, including the Erivan (Yerevan) and Nakhchivan Khanates, solidifying its control over the South Caucasus.

Persia struggled to pay the financial indemnities under the treaty, and Griboyedov and his embassy in Tehran were slaughtered by an angry mob. As the Russians were fighting another war against the Ottomans, it was in everyone's interest to play down the incident.

The book covers all the events of the period and Griboyedov's involvement. It is very light on the military aspects of the conflicts, so further reading will be required.

So, how do we tackle this on the wargame table? Mark Conrad translated a Russian work on the Persian army of the Qajar dynasty, which was helpful. Irregular Miniatures has a decent range in 15mm. Khurasan Miniatures in the US also have a range, as do Black Hussar (they look stunning) in 28mm. It would need to be a big project to justify US postage charges to the UK, so I will settle for 15mm. As it happens, Mark Bevis is selling off his 15mm armies on eBay, so I have bought a few infantry units and ordered some cavalry from Irregular. We will see where we go from there. Famous last words from a wargamer! 

Russian Warships in the Age of Sail

 This is one of those huge wow books you love to have on your bookshelf, even if you have no interest in the Russian Navy. John Tredea and Eduard Sozaev have meticulously researched the Russian Navy from 1696 to 1860. I was fortunate to pick this up in a second-hand bookshop in York for a reasonable price, even if my arm still aches from lugging it around for the rest of the day. 

The authors start with the historical background and then explain ship types, shipyards and ordnance. Over fifty pages are devoted to Russian naval history covering the wars in the Baltic, Black Sea and Caspian Sea. There is a brief mention of the voyages of exploration that saw Russian ships establishing settlements as far away as San Francisco.

The meat of the book is a description of every ship, covering its construction, design and armament, as well as its service history. This is broken down by fleet and period. The smaller fleets in the Sea of Azov, Caspian and the Far East are also included. Captured ships are also covered along with river flotillas and auxiliaries. This is an example covering one of the Pavel class, the Patrikii.

The book is profusely illustrated with line drawings, portraits of the leading commanders and paintings of sea actions. It would have made the research for my book, The Frontier Sea, a lot easier. However, it will certainly encourage me to add to my Russian fleet for games of Black Seas.

Ottoman Armies 1820-1914

 This is the latest in the Osprey Men-at-Arms series by Gabriele Esposito. It fills a gap in the Osprey coverage of Ottoman armies, although specific conflicts in this time frame have been covered before. In particular, Ian Drury's 1994, The Russo-Turkish War 1877, inspired me to build a 15mm army for the conflict and later an essential reference for a 28mm force.

The author takes a chronological approach to the period, which was one of considerable change. The period starts at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, which I covered in my new book, The Frontier Sea. Many attempts had been made to reform the Ottoman military, and this was finally achieved in the 1820s with the disbandment of the Janissaries (The Auspicious Incident) and, later, the semi-feudal cavalry, the Sipahis. By the end of the decade, the Ottoman state had the core of an army organised on modern lines. However, it was only a core, insufficient for a wartime army, and irregulars remained an essential element of the military during wartime.

This was demonstrated during the Tanzimat period 1840-53, particularly when challenged by Egypt in the war of 1839-41. So, in 1843 the army was expanded considerably, including conscription (1848) and the creation of a reserve (Redif). Regular light infantry and cavalry units were also introduced. 

The Ottoman armies that fought in the Crimean War have not always been given the credit they deserve, with most accounts ignoring the fighting in Moldavia and in the Caucasus. Even less well known are the irregular units officered by British and French officers, and the line regiments bolstered with British cadres. There were also Polish volunteer units.

This painting is of Tunisian troops sent to Balkans in 1877, in the Tunisian Military Museum.

The Russo-Turkish war of 1877, has been the subject of detailed work since Ian Drury's 1994 Osprey. Most notably, Quintin Barry's War in the East, and a special favourite of mine Frank Jastrzembski's, Valentine Baker's heroic stand at Tashkessen 1877. The Ottoman forces had to be reformed again after this war, which addressed the manpower shortages, but not the quality. There were some minor reforms in 1890s, with irregular units (Hamidye) still required in border regions.

Finally, we have the Young Turks period, with further reforms that took the army through the Balkan Wars and the First World War, which ended the Ottoman Empire. There are also descriptions of the vassal states, including Egypt, Tunisia, Serbia, Montenegro, Moldavia and Wallachia. These also provide some of the most colourful and original colour plates in the book. Moldavian lancers look terrific, as do Egyptian cuiraissiers. 

If you have any interest in the Ottomans, this is a must read. 

My 28mm Turkish cavalry and artillery for 1877